Seminars in Radiation Oncology
Volume 19, Issue 4 , Pages 211-221 , October 2009

Workup and Staging of Locally Advanced Breast Cancer

  • Gary J. Whitman, MD

      Affiliations

    • Division of Diagnostic Imaging, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Gary J. Whitman, MD, Division of Diagnostic Imaging, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Unit 1350, PO Box 301439, Houston, TX 77230-1439
  • ,
  • Eric A. Strom, MD

      Affiliations

    • Division of Radiation Oncology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX

References 

  1. Giordano SH. Update on locally advanced breast cancer. Oncologist. 2003;8:521–530
  2. Franceschini G, Terribile D, Magno S, et al. Update in the treatment of locally advanced breast cancer: A multidisciplinary approach. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2007;11:283–289
  3. Cristofanilli M, Valero V, Buzdar AU, et al. Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) and patterns of recurrence: Understanding the biology of a unique disease. Cancer. 2007;110:1436–1444
  4. Prati R, Minami CA, Gornbein JA, et al. Accuracy of clinical evaluation of locally advanced breast cancer in patients receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Cancer. 2009;115:1194–1202
  5. Gonzalez-Angulo AM, Morales-Vasquez F, Hortobagyi GN. Overview of resistance to systemic therapy in patients with breast cancer. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2007;608:1–22
  6. Chia S, Swain SM, Byrd DR, et al. Locally advanced and inflammatory breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:786–790
  7. Shen J, Valero V, Buchholz TA, et al. Effective local control and long-term survival in patients with T4 locally advanced breast cancer treated with breast conservation therapy. Ann Surg Oncol. 2004;11:854–860
  8. Londero V, Bazzocchi M, del Frate C, et al. Locally advanced breast cancer: Comparison of mammography, sonography and MR imaging in evaluation of residual disease in women receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Eur Radiol. 2004;14:1371–1379
  9. Bonnema J, van Geel AN, van Ooijen B, et al. Ultrasound-guided aspiration biopsy for detection of nonpalpable axillary node metastases in breast cancer patients: New diagnostic method. World J Surg. 1997;21:270–274
  10. Berg WA, Gilbreath PL. Multicentric and multifocal cancer: Whole-breast US in preoperative evaluation. Radiology. 2000;214:59–66
  11. Moon WK, Noh DY, Im JG. Multifocal, multicentric, and contralateral breast cancers: Bilateral whole-breast US in the preoperative evaluation of patients. Radiology. 2002;224:569–576
  12. Pendas S, Jakub J, Giuliano R, et al. The role of sentinel lymph node biopsy in patients with ductal carcinoma in situ or with locally advanced breast cancer receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Cancer Control. 2004;11:231–235
  13. Bedrosian I, Bedi D, Kuerer HM, et al. Impact of clinicopathological factors on sensitivity of axillary ultrasonography in the detection of axillary nodal metastases in patients with breast cancer. Ann Surg Oncol. 2003;10:1025–1030
  14. Khan A, Sabel MS, Nees A, et al. Comprehensive axillary evaluation in neoadjuvant chemotherapy patients with ultrasonography and sentinel lymph node biopsy. Ann Surg Oncol. 2005;12:697–704
  15. Podkrajsek M, Music MM, Kadivec M, et al. Role of ultrasound in the preoperative staging of patients with breast cancer. Eur Radiol. 2005;15:1044–1050
  16. Klauber-Demore N, Kuzmiak C, Rager EL, et al. High-resolution axillary ultrasound is a poor prognostic test for determining pathologic lymph node status in patients undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy for locally advanced breast cancer. Am J Surg. 2004;188:386–389
  17. Whitman GJ, Sheppard DG, Phelps MJ, et al. Breast cancer staging. Semin Roentgenol. 2006;41:91–104
  18. Yang WT, Chang J, Metreweli C. Patients with breast cancer: Differences in color Doppler flow and gray-scale US features of benign and malignant axillary lymph nodes. Radiology. 2000;215:568–573
  19. Feu J, Tresserra F, Fabregas R, et al. Metastatic breast carcinoma in axillary lymph nodes: In vitro US detection. Radiology. 1997;205:831–835
  20. Amaral BB, Meurer L, Whitman GJ, et al. Lymph node status in the breast cancer patient: Sampling techniques and prognostic significance. Semin Roentgenol. 2007;42:253–264
  21. Krishnamurthy S, Sneige N, Bedi DG, et al. Role of ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration of indeterminate and suspicious axillary lymph nodes in the initial staging of breast carcinoma. Cancer. 2002;95:982–988
  22. Topal U, Punar S, Tasdelen I, et al. Role of ultrasound-guided core needle biopsy of axillary lymph nodes in the initial staging of breast carcinoma. Eur J Radiol. 2005;56:382–385
  23. In:  Greene FL,  Page DL,  Fleming ID, et al. editor. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. (ed 6). New York, NY: Springer; 2002;p. 223–240
  24. March DE, Wechsler RJ, Kurtz AB, et al. CT-pathologic correlation of axillary lymph nodes in breast carcinoma. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1991;15:440–444
  25. Chung A, Liou D, Karlan S, et al. Preoperative FDG-PET for axillary metastases in patients with breast cancer. Arch Surg. 2006;141:783–789
  26. Gil-Rendo A, Martinez-Requeira F, Zornoza G, et al. Association between [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose uptake and prognostic parameters in breast cancer. Br J Surg. 2009;96:166–170
  27. McIntosh SA, Ogston KN, Payne S, et al. Local recurrence in patients with large and locally advanced breast cancer treated with primary chemotherapy. Am J Surg. 2003;185:525–531
  28. Shanta V, Swaminathan R, Rama R, et al. Retrospective analysis of locally advanced noninflammatory breast cancer from Chennai, South India, 1990-99. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008;70:51–58
  29. Beenken SW, Urist MM, Zhang Y, et al. Axillary lymph node status, but not tumor size, predicts locoregional recurrence and overall survival after mastectomy for breast cancer. Ann Surg. 2003;237:732–739
  30. Altinyollar H, Dingil G, Berberoglu U. Detection of infraclavicular lymph node metastases using ultrasonography in breast cancer. J Surg Oncol. 2005;92:299–303
  31. Iyengar P, Strom EA, Zhang Y-J, et al. Locally advanced breast cancer frequently involves the extra-axillary regional nodes: Incidence and treatment impact. Cancer Res. 2009;69(suppl):257s;(abstr)
  32. Helyer SJ, Moskovic E, Ashley S, et al. A study testing the routine use of ultrasound measurements when selecting the electron energy for breast boost radiotherapy. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 1999;11:164–168
  33. Rabinovitch R, Finlayson C, Pan Z, et al. Radiographic evaluation of surgical clips is better than ultrasound for defining the lumpectomy cavity in breast boost treatment planning: A prospective clinical study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000;47:313–317
  34. Coles C, Cash CJ, Treece GM, et al. High definition three-dimensional ultrasound to localise the tumour bed: A breast radiotherapy planning study. Radiother Oncol. 2007;84:233–241
  35. Phillips SW, Gabriel H, Comstock CE, et al. Sonographically guided metallic clip placement after core needle biopsy of the breast. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2000;175:1353–1355
  36. Braeuning MP, Burke ET, Pisano ED. Embolization coils as tumor markers for mammography in patients undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy for carcinoma of the breast. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2000;174:251–252
  37. Oh JL, Nguyen G, Whitman GJ, et al. Placement of radiopaque clips for tumor localization in patients undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy and breast conservation therapy. Cancer. 2007;110:2420–2427
  38. Gittleman MA. Single-step ultrasound localization of breast lesions and lumpectomy procedure. Am J Surg. 2003;186:386–390
  39. Bennett IC, Greenslade J, Chiam H. Intraoperative ultrasound-guided excision of nonpalpable breast lesions. World J Surg. 2005;29:369–374
  40. Paramo JC, Landeros M, McPhee MD, et al. Intraoperative ultrasound-guided excision of nonpalpable breast lesions. Breast J. 1999;5:389–394
  41. Morris EA. Breast cancer staging with MRI. Radiol Clin North Am. 2002;40:443–466
  42. Berg WA, Gutierrez L, NessAiver MS, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of mammography, clinical examination, US, and MR imaging in preoperative assessment of breast cancer. Radiology. 2004;233:830–849
  43. Lehman CD, Gatsonis C, Kuhl CK, et al. MRI evaluation of the contralateral breast in women with recently diagnosed breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1295–1303
  44. Kim HJ, Im YH, Han BK, et al. Accuracy of MRI for estimating residual tumor size after neoadjuvant chemotherapy in locally advanced breast cancer: Relation to response patterns on MRI. Acta Oncol. 2007;46:996–1003
  45. Julius T, Kemp SE, Kneeshaw PJ, et al. MRI and conservative treatment of locally advanced breast cancer. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2005;31:1129–1134
  46. Michel SC, Keller TM, Frohlich JM, et al. Preoperative breast cancer staging: MR imaging of the axilla with ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide enhancement. Radiology. 2002;225:527–536
  47. Stadnik TW, Everaert H, Makkat S, et al. Breast imaging (Preoperative breast cancer staging: Comparison of USPIO-enhanced MR imaging and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDC) positron emission tomography (PET) imaging for axillary lymph node staging—Initial findings). Eur Radiol. 2006;16:2153–2160
  48. Memarsadeghi M, Riedl CC, Kaneider A, et al. Axillary lymph node metastases in patients with breast carcinomas: Assessment with nonenhanced versus USPIO-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology. 2006;241:367–377
  49. Cox CE, Cox JM, White LB, et al. Sentinel node biopsy before neoadjuvant chemotherapy for determining axillary status and treatment prognosis in locally advanced breast cancer. Ann Surg Oncol. 2006;13:483–490
  50. Bombardieri E, Gianni L. The choice of the correct imaging modality in breast cancer management. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2004;31(suppl 1):S179–S186
  51. Al-Husaini H, Amir E, Fitzgerald B, et al. Prevalence of overt metastases in locally advanced breast cancer. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2008;20:340–344
  52. Mahner S, Schirrmacher S, Brenner W, et al. Comparison between positron emission tomography using 2-[fluorine-18]fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose, conventional imaging and computed tomography for staging of breast cancer. Ann Oncol. 2008;19:1249–1254
  53. van der Hoeven JJM, Krak NC, Hoekstra OS, et al. 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose positron emission tomography in staging of locally advanced breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:1253–1259
  54. Wahl RL, Siegel BA, Coleman RE, et al. Prospective multicenter study of axillary nodal staging by positron emission tomography in breast cancer: A report of the staging Breast Cancer with PET Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:277–285
  55. Bellon JR, Livingston RB, Eubank WB. Evaluation of the internal mammary lymph nodes by FDG-PET in locally advanced breast cancer (LABC). Am J Clin Oncol. 2004;27:407–410
  56. Baslaim MM, Bakheet SM, Bakheet R, et al. 18-Fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography in inflammatory breast cancer. World J Surg. 2003;27:1099–1104
  57. Tatsumi M, Cohade C, Mourtzikos KA, et al. Initial experience with FDG-PET/CT in the evaluation of breast cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2006;33:254–262
  58. Carkaci S, Macapinlac HA, Cristofanilli M, et al. Retrospective study of 18F-FDG PET/CT in the diagnosis of inflammatory breast cancer: Preliminary data. J Nucl Med. 2009;50:231–238
  59. Rosen EL, Eubank WB, Mankoff DA. FDG PET, PET/CT and breast cancer imaging. Radiographics. 2007;27(suppl 1):S215–S229
  60. Schelling M, Avril N, Nahrig J, et al. Positron emission tomography using [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose for monitoring primary chemotherapy in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:1689–1695

PII: S1053-4296(09)00041-1

doi: 10.1016/j.semradonc.2009.05.006

Seminars in Radiation Oncology
Volume 19, Issue 4 , Pages 211-221 , October 2009